The points to the right attest to the addition of exotic Pb to Ag ores during cupellation. The fields representing recent Aegean and south Iberian volcanic rocks (downloaded from the GEOROC database ‐/georoc/ ) are clearly relevant to Aegean and Magna Graecia coinage (primary ores). In spite of substantial overlap, (b) is meant to reduce the number of different symbols and improve legibility, while helping with the age of minting. Lead isotope relationships for the samples analysed here and literature data: the graphs show the same samples with symbols (a) and minting ages ( bce) (b), respectively. Archaeometry published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of University of Oxford. After defeating the Carthaginians and the Macedonians in the late second century bce, the Romans brought together the efficient, millennium-old techniques of silver extraction of the Phoenicians, who considered this metal a simple commodity, with the monetization of the economy introduced by the Greeks.Īg isotopes Mediterranean Pb isotopes monetization silver coinage. Massive Ag recupellation is observed in Rome during the Second Punic War. The Greek world extracted Ag and Pb from associated ores, whereas, on the Iberian Peninsula, Carthaginians and Republican-era Romans applied Phoenician cupellation techniques and added exotic Pb to Pb-poor Ag ores. The combined analysis of Ag and Pb isotopes reveals important information about the technology of smelting. The clear relationships observed between 109Ag/ 107Ag and 208Pb/ 206Pb reflect the mixing of silver ores or silver objects with Pb metal used for cupellation. We address this question by combining lead (Pb) and silver (Ag) isotope abundances in silver coinage from the Aegean, Magna Graecia, Carthage and Roman Republic. His body was found two days later on 26 August under some volcanicĭebris.The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization relative to the Eastern Mediterranean are still unclear. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, whom he had adopted, provided an account of his death, suggesting that he collapsed and died through inhaling poisonous gases from Vesuvius. He landedĪt Stabiae (near Castellammare di Stabia). Phenomenon more closely and also to mount a rescue mission. He launched his galleys and crossed the Bay of Naples to observe the On August 24, 79, he was stationed at Misenum when Vesuvius erupted overwhelming Pompeii and Herculaneum. Vespasian later appointed him praefect of the Roman Navy. When he dedicated the work to the emperor Titus Flavius Vespasianus. Asideįrom minor finishing touches, the work in 37 books was completed in 77 his great work, the Naturalis Historia,Īn encyclopedia containing much of the knowledge of his time. Under Nero Pliny lived mainly in Rome where he conceived of, and researched. Rubicon, and to have provided the inspiration for Caesar's eventual Is generally seen to have been the example that led Caesar to cross the In 79 BC he suddenly resigned and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to write his memoirs. Power to re-establish the supremacy of Senate in the Roman state and to He became dictator (88-82BC) and used his
Sulla was the first man to use the army to establish a He came to prominence most of all in the Social War (91-89 Impoverished patrician family, served as consul, and led militaryĬampaigns in North Africa under Gauis Marius, and against Mithidrates Though he resigned hisĬomplete command of the Republic, he is often seen as having hastened Gifted and effective general, Sulla marched his armies on Rome twice Įnjoying the absolute power of a dictator.
Invasion while further south Rome had begun annexing Etruscan cities.Īt the beginning of the 1st century BC, Rome annexed all the remaining The 4th century BC, Etruria lost its northern territories to a Gallic Over the cities of Latium and Campania slowly began to weaken. Name of the area in Southern Italy and Sicily colonised by GreekĮtruscans were defeated at the Battle of Cumae. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by aĬoalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse (Magna Graecia is the However, as Carthage's sphere of influence grew, soĮtruria shrank. Those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth century BC.Īllied themselves with Carthage against the Greeks and this initially Etruscans expanded both to the north beyond the Apennines and to the